The principle of the fuel cell was discovered by German scientist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1838 and
published in one of the scientific magazines of the time.[24] Based on this work, the first fuel cell was demonstrated by Welsh scientist and barrister Sir William Robert Grove in the February 1839 edition of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science[25] and later sketched, in 1842, in the same journal.[26] The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today'sphosphoric-acid fuel cell.
In 1955, W. Thomas Grubb, a chemist working for the General Electric Company (GE), further modified the original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as the electrolyte. Three years later another GE chemist, Leonard Niedrach, devised a way of depositing platinum onto the membrane, which served as catalyst for the necessary hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction reactions. This became known as the 'Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell'. GE went on to develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft, leading to its use during Project Gemini. This was the first commercial use of a fuel cell. It wasn't until 1959 that British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell. In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers which was demonstrated across the US at state fairs. This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants. Later in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering a welding machine. In the 1960s, Pratt and Whitney licensed Bacon's U.S. patents for use in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks). In 1991, the first hydrogen fuel cell automobile was developed by Roger Billings.[27]United Technologies Corporation's UTC Power subsidiary was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a co-generation power plant in hospitals, universities and large office buildings. UTC Power continues to market this fuel cell as the PureCell 200, a 200 kW system (although soon to be replaced by a 400 kW version, expected for sale in late 2009[dated info]).[28] UTC Power continues to be the sole supplier of fuel cells to NASA for use in space vehicles, having supplied fuel cells for the Apollo missions,[29] and the Space Shuttle program, and is developing fuel cells for automobiles, buses, and cell phone towers; the company has demonstrated the first fuel cell capable of starting under freezing conditions with its proton exchange membrane.
Types of fuel cell
Fuel cell name | Electrolyte | Qualifiedpower (W) | Workingtemperature(°C) | Efficiency(cell) | Efficiency (system) | Status | Cost (USD/W) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Metal hydride fuel cell | Aqueous alkaline solution | > -20 (50% Ppeak @ 0°C) | Commercial / Research | ||||
| Electro-galvanic fuel cell | Aqueous alkaline solution | < 40 | Commercial / Research | ||||
| Direct formic acid fuel cell (DFAFC) | Polymer membrane (ionomer) | < 50 W | < 40 | Commercial / Research | |||
| Zinc-air battery | Aqueous alkaline solution | < 40 | Mass production | ||||
| Microbial fuel cell | Polymer membrane or humic acid | < 40 | Research | ||||
| Upflow microbial fuel cell (UMFC) | < 40 | Research | |||||
| Regenerative fuel cell | Polymer membrane (ionomer) | < 50 | Commercial / Research | ||||
| Direct borohydride fuel cell | Aqueous alkaline solution | 70 | Commercial | ||||
| Alkaline fuel cell | Aqueous alkaline solution | 10 – 100 kW | < 80 | 60–70% | 62% | Commercial / Research | |
| Direct methanol fuel cell | Polymer membrane (ionomer) | 100 mW – 1 kW | 90–120 | 20–30% | 10–20% | Commercial / Research | 125 |
| Reformed methanol fuel cell | Polymer membrane (ionomer) | 5 W – 100 kW | 250–300 (Reformer) 125–200 (PBI) | 50–60% | 25–40% | Commercial / Research | |
| Direct-ethanol fuel cell | Polymer membrane (ionomer) | < 140 mW/cm² | > 25 ? 90–120 | Research | |||
| Proton exchange membrane fuel cell | Polymer membrane (ionomer) | 100 W – 500 kW | 50–120 (Nafion) 125–220 (PBI) | 50–70% | 30–50% | Commercial / Research | 30–35 |
| RFC - Redox | Liquid electrolytes with redox shuttle and polymer membrane (Ionomer) | 1 kW – 10 MW | Research | ||||
| Phosphoric acid fuel cell | Molten phosphoric acid (H3PO4) | < 10 MW | 150-200 | 55% | 40% Co-Gen: 90% | Commercial / Research | 4–4.50 |
| Molten carbonate fuel cell | Molten alkaline carbonate | 100 MW | 600-650 | 55% | 47% | Commercial / Research | |
| Tubular solid oxide fuel cell (TSOFC) | O2--conducting ceramic oxide | < 100 MW | 850-1100 | 60–65% | 55–60% | Commercial / Research | |
| Protonic ceramic fuel cell | H+-conducting ceramic oxide | 700 | Research | ||||
| Direct carbon fuel cell | Several different | 700-850 | 80% | 70% | Commercial / Research | ||
| Planar Solid oxide fuel cell | O2--conducting ceramic oxide | < 100 MW | 500-1100 | 60–65% | 55–60% | Commercial / Research | |
| Enzymatic Biofuel Cells | Any that will not denature the enzyme | < 40 | Research | ||||
| Magnesium-Air Fuel Cell | salt water | -20 - 55 | 90% | Commercial / Research |
Efficiency of leading fuel cell technologies
Power
Stationary fuel cells are used for commercial, industrial and residential primary and backup power generation. Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, communications centers, rural locations including research stations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability.[45] This equates to less than one minute of downtime in a six year period.[46]Since fuel cellelectrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example.[47] There are many different types of stationary fuel cells so efficiencies vary, but most are between 40% and 60% energy efficient.[16] However, when the fuel cell’s waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85%.[16] This is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants, which are only about one third energy efficient.[48] Assuming production at scale, fuel cells could save 20-40% on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems.[49] Fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation; a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution (other than CO2) for every 1,000 kW produced, compared to 25 pounds of pollutants generated by conventional combustion systems.[50] Fuel Cells also produce 97% less nitrogen oxide emissions then conventional coal-fired power plants.
Coca-Cola, Google, Sysco, FedEx, UPS, Ikea, Staples, Whole Foods, Gills Onions, Nestle Waters, Pepperidge Farm, Sierra Nevada Brewery, Super Store Industries, Brigestone-Firestone, Nissan North America, Kimberly-Clark, Michelin and more have installed fuel cells to help meet their power needs.[51] One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative[52] has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500 US gallons (1,900 L) at 200 pounds per square inch (1,400 kPa), and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence.
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
Although there are currently no Fuel cell vehicles available for commercial sale, over 20 FCEVs prototypes and demonstration cars have been released since 2009. Demonstration models include the Honda FCX Clarity, Toyota FCHV-adv, and Mercedes-Benz F-Cell.[56] As of June 2011 demonstration FCEVs had driven more than 4,800,000 km (3,000,000 mi), with more than 27,000 refuelings.[57] Demonstration fuel cell vehicles have been produced with "a driving range of more than 400 km (250 mi) between refueling".[58] They can be refueled in less than 5 minutes.[59] EERE’s Fuel Cell Technology Program claims that, as of 2011, fuel cells achieved 53–59% efficiency at ¼ power and 42–53% vehicle efficiency at full power,[60]and a durability of over 120,000 km (75,000 mi) with less than 10% degradation, double that achieved in 2006.[58] In a Well-to-Wheels simulation analysis, that "did not address the economics and market constraints", General Motors and its partners estimated that per mile traveled, a fuel cell electric vehicle running on compressed gaseous hydrogen produced from natural gas could use about 40% less energy and emit 45% less greenhouse gasses than an internal combustion vehicle.[61]Automobiles
Some experts believe that fuel cell cars will never become economically competitive with other technologies[62][63] or that it will take decades for them to become profitable.[64][65] In July 2011, the Chairman and CEO of General Motors, Daniel Akerson, stated that while the cost of hydrogen fuel cell cars is decreasing: "The car is still too expensive and probably won't be practical until the 2020-plus period, I don't know."[66] Analyses cite the lack of an extensive hydrogen infrastructurein the U.S. as an ongoing challenge to Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle commercialization. In 2006, a study for the IEEE showed that for hydrogen produced via electrolysis of water: "Only about 25% of the power generated from wind, water, or sun is converted to practical use." The study further noted that "Electricity obtained from hydrogen fuel cells appears to be four times as expensive as electricity drawn from the electrical transmission grid. ... Because of the high energy losses [hydrogen] cannot compete with electricity."[67] Furthermore, the study found: "Natural gas reforming is not a sustainable solution".[67] "The large amount of energy required to isolate hydrogen from natural compounds (water, natural gas, biomass), package the light gas by compression or liquefaction, transfer the energy carrier to the user, plus the energy lost when it is converted to useful electricity with fuel cells, leaves around 25% for practical use."[68][38][9] Despite this, several major car manufacturers have announced plans to introduce a production model of a fuel cell car in 2015. Toyota has stated that it plans to introduce such a vehicle at a price of around US$50,000.[69] In June 2011, Mercedes-Benz announced that they would move the scheduled production date of their fuel cell car from 2015 up to 2014, asserting that "The product is ready for the market technically. ... The issue is infrastructure."[70]
In 2003 US President George Bush proposed the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI). This aimed at further developing hydrogen fuel cells and infrastructure technologies with the goal of producing commercial fuel cell vehicles. By 2008, the U.S. had contributed 1 billion dollars to this project.[71]The Obama Administration has sought to reduce funding for the development of fuel cell vehicles, concluding that other vehicle technologies will lead to quicker reduction in emissions in a shorter time.[72] Steven Chu, the US Secretary of Energy, stated that hydrogen vehicles "will not be practical over the next 10 to 20 years".[73] He told MIT's Technology Review that he is skeptical about hydrogen's use in transportation because of four problems: "the way we get hydrogen primarily is from reforming [natural] gas. ... You're giving away some of the energy content of natural gas. ... [For] transportation, we don't have a good storage mechanism yet. ... The fuel cells aren't there yet, and the distribution infrastructure isn't there yet. ... In order to get significant deployment, you need four significant technological breakthroughs.[74] Critics disagree. Mary Nichols, Chairwoman of California's Air Resources Board, said: "Secretary Chu has firmly set his mind against hydrogen as a passenger-car fuel. Frankly, his explanations don’t make sense to me. They are not based on the facts as we know them."[75]
Buses
In total there are over 100 fuel cell buses deployed around the world today. Most buses are produced by UTC Power, Toyota, Ballard, Hydrogenics, and Proton Motor. UTC Buses have already accumulated over 970,000 km (600,000 mi) of driving.[76] Fuel cell buses have a 30-141% higher fuel economy than diesel buses and natural gas buses.[77] Fuel cell buses have been deployed around the world including in Whistler Canada, San Francisco USA, Hamburg Germany, Shanghai China, London England, São Paulo Brazil as well as several others.[78] The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global cooperative effort in trial fuel cell buses. Notable Projects Include:- 12 Fuel cell buses are being deployed in the Oakland and San Francisco Bay area of California.[78]
- Daimler AG, with thirty-six experimental buses powered by Ballard Power Systems fuel cells completed a successful three-year trial, in eleven cities, in January 2007.[79][80]
- A fleet of Thor buses with UTC Power fuel cells was deployed in California, operated by SunLine Transit Agency.[81]
The first Brazilian hydrogen fuel cell bus prototype in Brazil was deployed in São Paulo. The bus was manufactured in Caxias do Sul and the hydrogen fuel will be produced in São Bernardo do Campo from water through electrolysis. The program, called "Ônibus Brasileiro a Hidrogênio" (Brazilian Hydrogen Autobus), includes three additional buses
Fueling stations
There are already over 85 hydrogen refueling stations in the U.S.[105] The National Research Council estimated that creating the infrastructure to supply fuel for 10 million FCVs through 2025 would cost the government US$8 billion over 16 years.[106]
The first public hydrogen refueling station was opened in Reykjavík, Iceland in April 2003. This station serves three buses built by DaimlerChrysler that are in service in the public transport net of Reykjavík. The station produces the hydrogen it needs by itself, with an electrolyzing unit (produced by Norsk Hydro), and does not need refilling: all that enters is electricity and water. Royal Dutch Shell is also a partner in the project. The station has no roof, in order to allow any leaked hydrogen to escape to the atmosphere.[citation needed]As part of the California Hydrogen Highway initiative California has the most extensive hydrogen refueling infrastructure in the U.S.A. As of June 2011 California had 22 hydrogen refueling stations in operation.[105] Honda announced plans in March 2011 to open the first station that would generate hydrogen through solar-powered renewable electrolysis.[citation needed] South Carolina also has two hydrogen fueling stations, in Aiken and Columbia, SC. According to the South Carolina Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Alliance, the Columbia station has a current capacity of 120 kg a day, with future plans to develop on-site hydrogen production from electrolysis and reformation. The Aiken station has a current capacity of 80 kg. The University of South Carolina, a founding member of the South Carolina Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Alliance, received 12.5 million dollars from the United States Department of Energy for its Future Fuels Program.[107]
Japan also has a hydrogen highway, as part of the Japan hydrogen fuel cell project. Twelve hydrogen fueling stations have been built in 11 cities in Japan. Canada, Sweden and Norway also have hydrogen highways implemented.
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